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The first rather obscure and fanciful report on this, the most precious of ceramic materials, came from the Venetian traveller to China, Marco Polo, at the end of the 13th century: “They collect a certain type of earth… and pile it up in a large heap where it is exposed to the wind, rain and sun over a period of thirty or forty years, during which time it is not touched. After this it is purified and can be used to make vessels.”
Once the sea route to China was opened, luxury goods such as tea, silk, lacquerware and porcelain found their way to Europe in larger quantities. Just enough of these precious wares became available to give rise to a real mania for them among the ruling classes. Augustus the Strong alone is said to have spent 100,000 talers on porcelain in the first year of his reign. It is therefore no surprise that his scientific advisor Tschirnhaus referred to China with a shake of the head as “Saxony’s porcelain cupping glass“.
It was not only these excesses which put the country’s finances under strain. In addition, there were the huge bribes which Augustus paid to the Polish nobility and the costs of the Great Northern War against Charles XII of Sweden. As a result of all of this, money was urgently needed. It was therefore fortunate that the alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger fled to Saxony at this time to escape the persecution of the Prussian king. Augustus had him arrested immediately and brought to Dresden where he was forced into the service of his new master.
This was more the beginning of a “liaison dangereuse” than a great friendship, but, whatever the case, the king and his alchemist benefited from one another. Of course, while working in Dresden Böttger did not succeed in finding the arcanum, the Philosopher’s Stone, which could be used to transform base metals into gold. But in March 1709, after years of research and experimentation, he was able to report to his master that he had created genuine white porcelain for the first time.
In the following year the first European porcelain manufactory was founded on the Albrechtsburg in Meissen and the clay, colouring and firing processes remained state secrets until shortly before Böttger’s early death in 1719. No monopoly lasts for ever, and the history of porcelain in the 18th century is like a business thriller, with espionage and betrayal, poaching and seizure of employees, greed and sleaze.
The first competitor to the Meissen manufactory was the Royal Vienna Porcelain Manufactory, founded in 1718 as a private company, which soon caused problems for Meissen because of the high quality of its painting. Dissatisfied porcelain makers who left Meissen took the production secrets with them to new companies founded in Nymphenburg and Fürstenberg, among others. In contrast, Frederick the Great simply carried off the staff for his Berlin manufactory from Meissen as the spoils of war.
The third manufactory, founded in 1737 by Marchese Carlo Ginori in Doccia outside the gates of Florence, was particularly fortunate. Its patron was neither a greedy despot nor a financial double-dealer, but a well-educated, rich diplomat and early Renaissance man. He carefully studied the clays needed to make ceramics, collected sculptural moulds and drawings and enticed painters and kiln technicians away from Vienna. Above all, he made sure that the necessary knowledge was passed on by training his employees, a clever business move which enabled Ginori to avoid the crises faced by his competitors.
The tableware and figurines from the manufactories were and still are individual luxury items for connoisseurs and porcelain lovers. Although the magic of the Philosopher’s Stone lingers only in the individual nuances which distinguish fragments and colours from one another, the art, craftsmanship and sheer hard work involved in the production of porcelain has not diminished over the years.
Even the process of producing the clay is long and laborious. The kaolin is purified by washing and then mixed with ground feldspar and quartz. After this it is stored for two years to age, during which time it undergoes a fermenting process that makes it more malleable. Before processing, the material is passed through a kneading machine to remove air pockets and further increase its malleability. The raw clay is shaped in the turning shop or, after being diluted to form slip, in the casting shop. Next the casting seams are smoothed out, handles are added, hand-made decorative elements are attached and individually manufactured supports fitted, which prevent the items from becoming deformed during the drying process.
After the pieces have dried, they are bisque fired, which hardens them, but leaves them porous so that they can absorb the glaze. The second firing takes place in a tunnel kiln at 1400 degrees for 36 hours. During this time the clay shrinks by around 16 percent, sinters and acquires its glossy finish. As only a few colours can withstand this temperature, the porcelain is not painted until after the second firing. It is then fired again at 800–900 degrees. Gilding must be fired separately and then polished.
The complex interaction of art and science, proficiency and experience not only has its price, but also its value. It results in one of the most elegant aspects of a timeless and distinguished lifestyle.
Text: Thomas Held
Information
Porzellanmanufaktur Fürstenberg, http://www.fuerstenberg-porzellan.com/fbg-en/home.html
Königliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Berlin, http://en.kpm-berlin.com/default.aspx
La Manufacture de Sèvres, http://manufacturedesevres.culture.gouv.fr/
Staatl. Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen, http://www.meissen.de/
Porzellan Manufaktur Nymphenburg, http://www.nymphenburg.com/en/nymphenburg/
Richard Ginori, http://www.richardginori1735.com/
Royal Copenhagen, http://www.royalcopenhagen.com/
